前语言期儿童沟通姿势研究综述

    梁露尧 李辉

    【摘要】本文通过梳理相关文献,分析前语言期儿童沟通姿势(即手势)的定义、类型及其与语言发展的关系。研究者据此建议,应当及时并有针对性地反馈儿童基于手势发出的沟通信号。

    【关键词】前语言期;儿童;沟通姿势;手势;非语言沟通

    【中图分类号】G610? ?【文献标识码】A? ?【文章编号】1004-4604(2019)7/8-0074-04

    语言是人类进行信息交流、思想沟通的重要媒介。虽然其他物种,如蜜蜂、猴子等会通过舞姿、尖叫声等与同伴交流,但人类语言因其具备自反性(即凭借语言反思、分析语言本身)、迁移性(即使用语言描述非当下存在的事物)、创造性(即使用语言描述新事物)等而能传达更丰富、明确的思想内容。〔1〕个体是在不同情境的社会交往中逐步习得与完善语言能力的,大量研究针对个体不同阶段的语言发展特点作了深入探讨。本文重点聚焦处于语言发展初期的前语言期儿童,对有关其所依靠的重要非语言沟通方式(nonverbal communication)——沟通姿势(communicative gesture)的研究作一梳理,供相关人员参考。

    一、前语言期儿童沟通姿势的定义及类型

    前语言期(pre-linguistic stage)指从儿童出生到其产生第一个有意义的词之前这一时期,通常为12~13月龄之前的阶段。〔2〕在该阶段,儿童虽无法使用口头语言与他人交流,但已可以通过多种前语言行为(pre-linguistic behaviours),如咿呀语(babbling)、哭喊(crying)、面部表情(facial expression)、身体语言(body language)等传递意图、表达情感、提出要求等。一项研究显示,婴儿发出的无意义话语已经可以向成人传达要求、抗议、问候等信息。〔3〕可见,前语言期儿童在同成人(以父母为主)的交流中并非总是扮演被动角色,其多种前语言行为为与成人有效沟通创造了可能。

    沟通姿势是个体发展较早、被研究较多的非语言沟通方式之一。广义上讲,沟通姿势指用于传达沟通意图的各种身体动作,通常包含手部、手臂、面部、身体其他部位或全身的运动。〔4,5〕本文中的沟通姿势专指手部沟通动作,也称沟通手势(简称手势)。贝茨(Bates)等人指出,10月龄的儿童已经可以通过手势与外界沟通。〔6,7〕另有一种观点认为,手势是在个体语言发展初期出现的用于替代其无法说出的词汇、句子的符号系统,在个体顺利习得本族语言后即不复存在。该观点无法解释为何在成年人的交往中,手势仍经常出现并发挥重要的辅助沟通功能。近十年的神经认知科学研究表明,人脑中的手势与语言功能区存在共享的神经基质,〔8〕两者在个体语言发展的各阶段均呈现出相互影响的特点。〔9〕对前语言期儿童来说,手势除起信息沟通之用外,还有助于其通过与环境互动获得学习机会,进而促进其认知、语言等的全面发展。

    手势类型大致可分为以下三类。指示性手势(deictic gesture)指沟通者利用手部动作(如伸出单根手指、伸展手掌等)从周围环境中明确指出需要对话参与者关注的目标参照物,可细分为指示手势(pointing)、呈现手势(showing)、给予手势(giving)等。例如,儿童伸出食指指向某物或将某物举起,引发父母对该物的关注。这类手势是儿童1岁前主要依赖的非语言沟通方式,是儿童进行有意图交流的早期标志。〔10,11〕象征性手势(representational gesture)的作用不在于引发对话参与者的关注,而在于传递、交流信息。象征性手势可细分为习用手势(conventional gesture or gesture routine)和圖示手势(iconic gesture)。前者指在特定社交情境中被大多数人接受和惯用的手势,用以传递约定俗成的沟通信号,如挥手示意告别;后者则指用以呈现人、事、物形态或功能的手势,如以双手上下舞动表示小鸟飞翔。〔12〕物件关联手势(object-related gesture or object gesture)是指沟通者借助他物完成的手部动作,主要用以演示凭借物的功能。例如,儿童手握汤匙做出喝汤的动作,或将玩具手机放至耳边作打电话状。该类手势的出现说明儿童开始理解周围事物,并出现模仿行为。

    此外,贝茨等人曾从沟通意图角度将前语言期儿童手势整合为两类:原始祈使手势(proto-imperative)和原始陈述手势(proto-declarative)。〔13〕前者用于寻求对话参与者的帮助以获取某物,后者用于提醒对话参与者注意某物。

    二、前语言期儿童沟通姿势与语言发展的关系

    前语言期儿童对沟通姿势,即手势的掌握体现为两方面:理解他人手势和使用手势达成沟通意图。大量研究表明,上述两方面能力均与儿童语言发展具有相关性。例如,在麦克格雷果(Mcgregor)等人的研究中,2岁前儿童被分为三组分别接受不同指导模式的词汇学习:实验组一接受“口述新词+手势示范”指导,实验组二接受“口述新词+手势静态图演示”指导,对照组只接受口头指导。后测结果表明,相对于实验组二和对照组,实验组一的儿童对新词的理解最深入。〔14〕这说明儿童对手势的辨识可以强化其对陌生词汇的理解。科罗内斯(Colonnesi)等人发现,手势与语言发展之间在同期和长期关系上均存在显著相关性,〔15〕具体体现为手势对语言发展的先导性和预测性。

    1.先导性

    艾佛森(Iverson)和戈尔丁-梅多(Goldin-Meadow)通过跟踪记录10名前语言期儿童的手势和语言发展状况发现,在10~24月龄的观察周期内,儿童曾以手势表示的词汇更倾向于出现在3个月后的口头语言中,相反方向的迁移(即出现在口头语言中的词汇转为仅由手势表示)却相对较少出现。〔16〕卡皮尔兹(Capirci)等人发现,儿童使用“手势-词语”组合(gesture-word combination)先于其在口头语言中使用相应的双字词组 (two-word combination)。〔17〕由此可知,前语言期儿童更可能先习得手势,后习得词汇表征。有关前者对后者的促进作用在下文诸多研究中得到了进一步证实。

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    A Critical Review of Researches on Childrens Communicative Gesture in Pre-linguistic Stage

    Liang Luyao, Li Hui

    (Macquarie University, Australia)

    【Abstract】By reviewing related literature, this paper analyzes the definition and types of childrens communicative gesture (abbreviated as gesture) in pre-linguistic stage and its relationship with language development. It is, therefore, important to provide timely and targeted responses to childrens gesture for communication.

    【Keywords】pre-linguistic stage; children; communicative gesture; gesture; nonverbal communication